had done. 'Umar sent for ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf, Sa’ad bin was asked before his death to nominate his successor as Abu Bakr 'Umar Abu Waqqas, Az-Zubayr bin Al-Awwam, Talhah, 'Ali, and 'Uthman bin 'Affan . Talhah was somewhere outside Al-Madeenah. 'Umar said addressing those five persons: "Keep waiting for Talhah for three days: If he returns within this period, he is included in the panel otherwise you should choose your Caliph from among yourselves."
After the demise of 'Umar Al-Miqdad bin Al-Aswad and Abu Talhah appointed Suhayb as acting Caliph and Imam for three days as per the will left by 'Umar. Afterwards, they contacted 'Ali, 'Uthmaan, Az-Zubayr, Sa’ad, ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf and 'Abdullah bin 'Umar, and assembled them in the house of Miswar bin Makhramah, or according to other accounts, in the house of 'Aa’ishah . Talhah was still out of Al-Madeenah. When all the members arrived, ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf got up and said: "Who among those nominated for the Caliphate withdraws his name so that he may be given power to appoint the most excellent and suitable among you as Caliph?" All the persons present kept silent. After a while he announced: "I give up my candidacy and I am ready to perform the duty of appointing a Caliph." All of them agreed to it and empowered him to appoint the Caliph. However, 'Ali kept silent. When ’Abdur-Rahman asked him about his silence, he said: "I agree with the opinion of other members, but, you must first promise to make your decision without any favor and personal involvement and do it with an eye on the truth and for the welfare of the whole Ummah."
’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf said: "I give my word that I will do it without showing any favor to anyone and without any personal involvement just for the sake of truth and for the welfare of the Ummah. But all of you should also promise to agree to the one I choose for the post, and you will rise against the one who disagrees with me." Having heard this, 'Ali and all those present said with one voice: "We will all lend support to your choice and help you in its enforcement."
With this promise on both sides, the session was over and the members went home and waited for three days for the final verdict. During this period, ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf kept meeting men of sound judgment and discussing the issue with them. He says that when he said to 'Uthman in private; "In case I fail to pledge allegiance to you, to whom will you suggest to do this?" He replied: "You should pledge allegiance to 'Ali." ’Abdur-Rahman then put the same question to 'Ali when he was alone, and he took the name of 'Uthman. ’Abdur-Rahman then asked Az-Zubayr to give his decision, he said: "Pledge your allegiance to either 'Uthman or 'Ali." He then referred the issue to Sa’ad in private, he took the name of 'Uthman. When he took the advice of other men of sound judgment, the majority appeared to be in favor of 'Uthman .
On the night before the day of announcing the decision, the members of the panel again assembled in the same house. ’Abdur-Rahmaan bin 'Awf called Az-Zubayr and Sa’ad separately and said: "Most of the people appear to be in favor of 'Uthman and 'Ali." They too favored them. ’Abdur-Rahman then talked to 'Uthman and 'Ali separately. The night ended and after the Fajr prayer the mosque was crowded with people, all of them were eagerly awaiting the announcement of ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf.
’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf got up and said addressing the audience: "I did all within my power to know the opinion of all the groups and classes of people and nobody is now to go against my decision. All the members of the consultative body and nominated panel have already conceded to my decision and I have spent all my power to arrive at this decision." Saying this he called 'Uthman and asked him to declare his resolve to follow the path shown by Allah and His Messenger, , and the Righteous Caliphs that passed away before him. 'Uthman declared that he would try his best to follow the commands of Allah and His Messenger , and follow the examples of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq and 'Umar . Following this, ’Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf himself first pledged his allegiance to 'Uthman and others followed suit.
At the end of the Bay'ah (pledge of allegiance) session, 'Uthman bin 'Affan came to the pulpit and addressing the congregation asked them to follow the good deeds. He also asked them to fear the evil effects of abundant wealth and stressed keeping the Pleasure of Allah in view. After his preliminary address, he issued an order in the name of the governors and officers mentioning the demise of 'Umar and his own election as the Caliph of Islam. All of them were enjoined to work with honesty and in good faith.
The conquest of Alexandria
Other than the conquest of Alexandria (Iskandariyah), during the first year of the Caliphate of 'Uthman bin 'Affan there was no other major event. Heraclius had taken refuge in Constantinople (Istanbul) after his flight from Asia Minor and Syria following the fall of Bayt-ul-Maqdis (Jerusalem). Now he was worried about the safety of the rest of his territory, after losing all hope of restoring the lost lands. In the wake of the invasion of Egypt by 'Amr bin Al-'Aas, Muqawqis, the king of Egypt had yielded Egypt and Alexandria to him after earning peace by paying the Jizyah (Head-tax imposed by Islam on the people of the Book). Heraclius considered Egypt his own province and Muqawqis his subordinate. Shock and terror engulfed him on all sides and he died surrounded by defeat and dejection during the Caliphate of 'Umar . His son Qustuntin (Constantine) succeeded him and lost no time in mobilizing a huge army to restore Alexandria. However, Muqawqis prevented the Romans from entering Alexandria and thus kept his promise.
When the Muslims came to know of the Roman invasion, they came quickly from Fustat (Cairo). The Romans then turned their attack to the Islamic cantonments giving up their campaign for Alexandria. Both the armies came upon each other and a severe battle broke out. The commander of the Roman army was killed and a large number of Roman soldiers met the same fate. The rest barely reached Constantinople by boat. 'Amr bin Al-'Aas lost no time in demolishing the ramparts around Alexandria and then came back to his cantonment in Fustat. This was done to prevent the possibility of any Roman attack in future trying to turn Alexandria into a fortress. This event took place in 25 AH.
The conquest of Armenia
The Roman invasion of Alexandria was, in fact, the result of the demise of 'Umar and the same event led to the uprising in the Persian territories of Hamadan and Rey. They declared their freedom from Muslim rule. 'Uthman bin 'Affan dispatched Abu Moosa Al-Ash'ari, Al-Baraa' bin 'Azib and Qarazah bin Ka'b to tackle the situation and they did their job well.
the governor of Mu'awiyah Damascus had sent Habeeb bin Maslamah to Armenia. He conquered a number of cities and forts and forced the Romans to pay the Jizyah. When this news reached the Caesar of Constantinople, he collected 80,000 troops from Malit, Siwas, and Quniah and invaded Habeeb bin Maslamah. Habeeb sent the account of these events to Mu'awiyah and he gave the news to the Caliph 'Uthman bin 'Affan. The Caliph wrote to Waleed bin 'Uqbah, the governor of Koofah to dispatch 10,000 reinforcements to Armenia who immediately carried out the order with a dispatch of 8,000 troops headed by Salman bin Rabee'ah to Armenia.
jointly won Habeeb bin Maslamah and Salman bin Rabee'ah Armenia and reached up to the Caucasus Mountains. When Habeeb bin Maslamah returned to Damascus, Mu’awiyah himself invaded the Roman territory. The Roman fighters escaped leaving Antakiyah (Antioch) and their citadels behind. This event took place in 25 AH.
Events and changes in Egypt
'Abdullah bin Sa’ad was the foster brother of 'Uthman bin 'Affan. 'Uthman bin 'Affan sent him to Egypt as a governor and head of the public treasury while 'Amr bin Al-'Aas was kept simply as a military officer. When relations among the military officers worsened, the Caliph deposed 'Amr bin Al-'Aas and transferred the entire control of Egypt and Alexandria to 'Abdullah bin Sa’ad.
and the resulting uprisings in When the Caesar of Constantinople heard of the deposition of 'Amr bin Al-'Aas Egypt, he mobilized a huge army towards Alexandria under the command of a seasoned general. The Greeks in the city joined the Roman army’s camp and Alexandria fell to the Romans after slight resistance.
'Amr bin Al-'Aas was again sent to Egypt as a governor who launched such a fierce attack at the Romans that they had to flee from Alexandria after sustaining heavy losses and a heavy toll on their soldiers.
Nevertheless, when peace and normalcy returned to the region and the administration was running smooth, 'Amr bin Al-'Aas was deposed once again and replaced by 'Abdullah bin Sa’ad. This time the Caliph’s decision made 'Abdullah bin Sa’ad feel uneasy and uncomfortable, because his efforts to uphold the deteriorating situation of the region the last time had met with utter failure. However, he was now anxious to make amends for his past failures.
‘Abdullah bin Sa’d sought permission from ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan to invade Africa. Africa was then considered a country that included the area stretching between Tripoli and Tangiers. Moreover, Africa was then considered a conglomeration of the countries which make up the northern part of the African continent – Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco. ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan allowed him to do what he wanted. He marched towards his destination at the head of an army of 10,000 men. First, he subdued the chiefs of Barqah and they agreed to pay Jizyah. The Muslim commander then advanced towards Tripoli capturing the territories falling on the way. At this stage the Caliph dispatched fresh reinforcements from Al-Madeenah to help ‘Abdullah's army.
When the detachment reached Barqah via Egypt, ‘Abdullah bin Sa’d welcomed it and they jointly proceeded towards Tripoli. The Romans tried to put up resistance but were repulsed. After the fall of Tripoli, the Muslim troops marched ahead. Gregory, the King of Africa was the vassal of Caesar. When he came to know of the march of the Muslim army, he mobilized one 120,000 men and came face to face with the Muslim forces. ‘Abdullah bin Sa’d first invited Gregory to accept Islam. When Gregory flatly refused, he asked him to pay the Jizyah (head-tax imposed by Islam on the people of the Book). When he rejected that also, the Muslim army drew up ranks and a fierce battle broke out, which remained indecisive. Fresh Muslim reinforcements joined the battle and the Muslim army called out Allahu Akbar (Allah is the Greatest).
When Gregory inquired about the cries raised by the Muslims, he was told that a fresh detachment had arrived and joined the Muslim forces. Both the armies fought enthusiastically but the battle remained inconclusive. When night set in, consultations were held for adopting a new strategy. ‘Abdullah bin Zubayr suggested that half of the troops should go to the battlefield and the rest remain inside the camp. When the two armies, exhausted by the daylong fighting were to leave the battlefield for camp, the fresh half of the Muslim army should attack the retreating Romans. The counsel received general acceptance. This strategy was put to practice on the third day of the battle. When the two armies separated in the afternoon, ‘Abdullah bin Zubayr rushed out from the camp with the fresh detachment and charged the Romans. They could not withstand the attack and fled to their camp, but could not save themselves because the Muslim force surrounded the camp and the Romans were either killed or captured. Gregory also fought against the Muslims and was put to the sword by ‘Abdullah bin Zubayr .
The next day, the Muslim army moved ahead and reached Sabitalah, the headquarters of (northern) Africa which was also conquered in a couple of days, and an immense amount of spoils fell into the hands of the Muslims. The Muslims marched further and laid siege around the fort of Jam, which was very strong and fortified. However, they could not stand the Muslim onslaught and yielded on the condition of paying one million as Jizyah. ‘Abdullah bin Zubayr set out to Al-Madeenah with the glad tidings of the African conquest and one-fifth of the spoils. ‘Abdullah bin Sa’d returned to Egypt from Africa after an absence of one year and three months.
Conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes
‘Abdullah bin Sa’d came back to Egypt from the other parts of northern Africa. Constantine again rose to make military preparations for a fresh battle. In 28 AH, he dispatched a part of his navy towards Africa, which reached the African coast and demanded tribute for Caesar. But the Africans flatly refused, because Caesar had lent no help when they were under the Muslim attack and so they no longer held him as their ruler. This refusal led to fighting between the Africans and the Roman army, which resulted in the defeat of Africans. The Romans then advanced towards Alexandria. ‘Abdullah bin Nafi' was ready to fight them. In the meantime Caesar himself set off to conquer Alexandria at the head of a fleet of 600 boats. The Roman forces proceeded to Alexandria from both sides. A fierce fight took place, which ended with the destruction of the Romans. They escaped to Cyprus, which they used as their naval headquarters and an arsenal for their weapons.
During the last days of ‘Umar’s Caliphate, Mu'awiyah had sought permission to invade Cyprus from the Syrian coast. However, ‘Umar had hesitated in giving permission for such a campaign and the matter remained undecided until he passed away. ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan permitted the naval attack on condition that nobody was forced to take part in the adventure. Inspired by the efforts of Mu'awiyah, a party agreed to invade Cyprus. The party included Abu Tharr Al-Ghifari, Abud-Dardaa', Shaddad bin ‘Aws, ‘Ubadah bin As-Samit and his wife Umm Haram bint Milhan . ‘Abdullah bin Qays was made the commander of the detachment, which left for Cyprus by boat. When Constantine escaped from Alexandria, he had taken refuge in Cyprus. An Islamic naval force chased him by boats from Egypt and reached Cyprus. And this, a fresh naval detachment from Syria also descended on the coast of Cyprus. Constantine could not withstand the attack and fled to Constantinople with great difficulty, and finally succumbed to death.
However, according to other sources, frustrated by his successive defeats, some people killed him in his bathroom. Thus Cyprus easily fell to the Muslims. Mu'awiyah also arrived in Cyprus with a detachment. After finishing his job in Cyprus he sailed to Rhodes. The conquests of Cyprus and Rhodes opened the door for Muslim campaigns against Constantinople and other countries of the region. These events took place at the end of 28 AH or at the beginning of 29 AH.
Circulation of the Quran
When Huthayfah bin Al-Yaman reached Al-Madeenah on route to Basrah, Koofah, Rey and Syria, he expressed amazement over the fact that the people of Iraq, Syria, Basrah and Koofah, and Persia had their own way of reciting the Noble Quran which was quite different from each other. He thought it would be better if one and all were brought to the same way of recitation. ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan convened a meeting of the distinguished Companions and placed the suggestion for their deliberations and decisions. All of them endorsed the opinion of Huthayfah . Then, ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan had them bring the copy of the Quran that was with Hafsah which was compiled by Zayd bin Thabit and other Companions during the Caliphate of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq and which had been kept with ‘Umar and then with his daughter Hafsah after ‘Umar’s death. The Caliph deputed a number of qualified people to prepare a number of copies. He then sent a copy of the Quran to each city with the order that the Quran be copied accordingly and all the old copies be set on fire. When the fresh copy reached Koofah, the Companions expressed their joy over it, but ‘Abdullah bin Mas'ood remained firm on his own recitation.
Yezdgird killed
The Persian Empire was destroyed during the Caliphate of ‘Umar . The rest of the cities and frontier provinces were conquered during the Caliphate of ‘Uthman bin ‘Affan . Nevertheless, Yezdgird, the Emperor of Persia was still running from place to place for safety. Sometimes he was in Rey and sometimes in Balkh, Marw, Isfahan, Istakhar, Turkistan and China and back again to Persia. A party of several thousand soldiers remained with him through thick and thin in the hope that one day their past glory and grandeur might be restored. This was the reason why the Persian provinces, districts and cities would so often rise against the Muslim rule even though they were instantly put down by the Muslim forces. In 31 AH, Yezdgird reached the suburbs of Balkh at the head of a party from China and Turkistan and captured some cities for a short period. His misfortunes compelled him to flee and take refuge at the dwelling of a windmill owner. He was in deep sleep when the owner of the house, out of greed for his costly garments, killed him and threw his dead body into water after stripping him of his clothes, ornaments and weapons. This event took place in suburb of Marw on August 23, 651 CE. Yezdgird passed four years of his life in luxury, sixteen years in affliction and vagrancy and the last ten years out of sixteen, he passed as a fugitive. The Persian troubles came to an end after Yezdgird was killed.
