10 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS

10 MUSLIM SCIENTISTS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS


Islamic scholars who have made outstanding contributions to mathematics have inspired thinkers such as Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli, Galileo Galilei. The Fikriyat website lists 10 mathematicians from the Islamic world who have developed this science.

Ali Kushchu (1403-1474)

Source: art.kunstmatrix.com

Ali Kushchu became famous mainly as an outstanding astronomer. But he was also a wonderful mathematician. His “Treatise on the Science of Arithmetic” and “Treatise on the Science of Astronomy” played a significant role in the teaching of mathematics in the countries of the Middle and Near East in the 16th-17th centuries.

Omar Khayyam (1048-1131)

Source: zen.yandex.ru

Although Omar Khayyam is known today, primarily as a poet, he was a versatile scientist who created works in the field of physics, metaphysics, mathematics and astronomy. He is called one of the most prominent mathematicians of the 12th century. It is assumed that he wrote 14 works devoted to this science. Among them are such as “Treatise on the proofs of problems of algebra and almukabala”, in the introduction to which Omar Khayyam gives the first extant definition of algebra as a science, “Comments on the difficulties in the introduction of the book of Euclid”, where the scientist also considers irrational numbers. One of his treatises that have not come down to us described the method he developed on the basis of the works of Chinese and Indian mathematicians for finding the roots of natural numbers of the second, third and fourth degrees.

Al-Battani (858-929)

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Al-Battani is known as one of the greatest Islamic astronomers. In the West, he was known under the name Albatenius. Observing the motion of the planets led the scientist to the study of trigonometry. Al-Battani was the first to use the concepts of “sine” and “cosine”. In addition, he developed the field of mathematical astronomy, correcting the theories of Khorezmi about the eclipse of the moon and the plane of the ecliptic. In his “Sabean Zij”, the scientist described methods for calculating spherical triangles, which were later developed by other Islamic mathematicians.

Al-Biruni (973-1048)

Source: zen.yandex.ru

Encyclopedic scientist Abu Raikhan Biruni paid much attention to mathematics, especially trigonometry, to which he devoted several of his works. He is considered a pioneer in the use of the observation method in science. During his life, he created 146 works, most of which have not reached us. Half of his work was devoted to astronomy and 20 to mathematics.

Abu Wafa al-Buzjani (940-998)

Source: iransegodnya.ru

Abu Wafa al-Buzjani , the founder of trigonometry, is considered one of the most prominent Islamic mathematicians and astronomers. Although research on trigonometry was carried out by Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi, it was Abu Wafa who systematized this science. He was the first to prove some trigonometric theorems and introduced the trigonometric functions tangent and cotangent. Also, the scientist found with high accuracy the value of the sine of one degree and derived a formula for the sine of the sum of two angles.

Thabit ibn Qurrah (836-901)

Source: steamdaily.com

It can be argued that Thabit ibn Qurrah contributed to the beginning of a new era in mathematics, in particular in geometry and trigonometry. He wrote numerous works in these areas. His treatises on trigonometry contributed to the spread of this science in the West. Sabit ibn Kurra’s research on numbers and methods for solving higher-order equations was the first in its field.

Al-Khwarizmi (783-850)

Source: arageek.com

The title of al-Khwarizmi’s book Kitab al-jabr wa al-muqabala (A Brief Book of Completion and Opposition), in which he explains the solution of equations of the second degree by the methods of geometry and mathematics, gave rise to the term algebra. Al-Khwarizmi’s greatest contribution to mathematics is that thanks to him the zero symbol and the designation of an unknown quantity as “x” appeared. Al-Khwarizmi developed detailed trigonometric tables containing sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent functions. Until the 16th century, translations of his books on arithmetic were used in European universities as the main textbooks in mathematics.

Abu Qasim al-Majriti (950-1007)

Source: trtworld.com

Al-Majriti is considered one of the most prominent Andalusian astronomers and mathematicians. He was nicknamed Euclid of Andalusia. It is argued that it was only thanks to his work that astronomy and mathematics became separate scientific disciplines in this region. He had a serious influence on later scholars and was also known in the West.

Giyas ad-din Jamshid (1380-1429)

Source: parusinfo.com

Astronomer and mathematician Giyas ad-din Jamshid owns the first systematic presentation of the theory of decimal fractions, as well as the calculation of the value of the number π with an accuracy of 16 decimal places.

Nasir ad-Din Tusi (1201-1274)

Source: hermesphilus.com

“Shakl al-katta” by the outstanding mathematician, mechanic and astronomer at-Tusi became the first separate work on trigonometry. Thanks to this work, trigonometry was separated from astronomy and began to be viewed as a branch of mathematics. Using six trigonometric functions, at-Tusi was engaged in solving plane and spherical triangles, and also made a great contribution to the development of algebra.

Islamosphere

ABD AR-RAHMAN AL-KHAZINI – AN EMINENT PHYSICIST AND ASCETIC FROM MERV


Abd al-Rahman al-Hazini, who was a Byzantine Greek by birth, became famous as an astronomer, mechanic, mathematician, philosopher and alchemist, writes Sadettin Okten for İslam Ansiklopedisi.

There is no special information about the life of Abu al-Fatah Abd ar-Rahman Mansur al-Khazini, who is sometimes confused in sources with Ibn Haytham, Abu Jafar al-Khazini and Abu al-Fadl Khazini. It is known that he was a Byzantine slave of Abu Hussein Ali ibn Muhammad al-Khazin al-Marwazi. Its owner held the post of treasurer (khazin) in the palace in Merv , therefore the scientist became known under the name Khazini. Thanks to the capabilities that Abu Hussein al-Marwazi possessed, Hazini received the best education in that era, especially mathematics and philosophy.

He carried out his research with the support of Sanjar (1118-1157) in Merv, which at that time became the center of science and culture. Abdurrahman al-Khazini prepared for the sultan the famous zij (astronomical tables), which for a long time was considered the most reliable of such works, and for weighing the treasures stored in the treasury he made a hydrostatic balance, which he called “mizan al-hikma” (“scales of wisdom”). This instrument was an equal-arm balance scale with five bowls and a movable weight, with which you can weigh various weights in the air and in the water. It allowed you to find out if the metals and stones were clean, as well as calculate the ratio of metals in alloys consisting of two elements. This scale was far superior to other similar instruments previously created in terms of accuracy.

Drawing of hydrostatic scales created by Abdurrahman al-Hazini / Source: islamansiklopedisi.org.tr

Abdurrahman al-Hazini was also a religious person who followed the path of asceticism. He dressed like a dervish, ate very little, and lived alone in his house. They say that he did not accept the awards given to him and once sent back a thousand dinars sent by Sultan Sanjar , stating that he had ten dinars, and this money would be enough for him for three years. Among his students, only the name of Hasan al-Samarkandi is known. Hazini’s work has not yet been fully studied.

Apart from the zijj mentioned, al-Hazini’s most outstanding work is The Book of the Scales of Wisdom, which is one of the most significant works on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics in the Middle Ages. It was written in 1121 in connection with the creation of the scales of the same name. This work consists of 8 books. The first book contains the geometric and physical principles of the operation of hydrostatic scales, the second – general information about the scales, the third discusses methods for finding the specific gravity of metals, precious stones and other objects, in the fourth – the opinions of Archimedes, Menelaus, Abu Bakr ar-Raziand Khayyam on the listed issues. Books five and six cover the parts, assembly, and use of the scale; Books seven and eight cover changes to hydrostatic scales, information on other types of scales, and also includes many tables and charts. Although the “Book of Scales of Wisdom” became a desktop for manufacturers of scales, traders and supervisors, it never gained widespread acceptance, since the corresponding branch of knowledge did not receive further development at that time.

Al-Khazini also wrote a small Treatise on Instruments (Risala fi al-alat), which describes astronomical instruments.

Al-Hazini’s Book of Scales of Wisdom / Source: researchgate.net

HOW THREE CORSAIR BROTHERS KEPT THE MEDITERRANEAN AT BAY


In the 15th-16th centuries, three corsair brothers from the Ottoman Empire dominated the Mediterranean Sea, one of whom became the prototype for numerous legends and literary works of European authors.

In the army of Sultan Mehmed II, who participated in the conquest of Lesbos in 1462, there was a warrior (sipahi) named Yakub-aga. After completing his military service, he settled on this island, and the village of Bonova was given to him. He married a woman named Katerina, according to some sources, the widow of an Orthodox priest, and he had 4 sons: Iskhak,  Oruch , Khizir and Ilyas.

Source: vseprotunis.ru

The brothers received a good education, they knew Italian, Spanish,  French and the Greek languages, and began to engage in maritime trade. During one of the voyages, the ship of Oruch and Ilyas was attacked by the Rhodes knights-Ioannites, the younger brother was killed, and the older one was captured. He managed to escape 3 years later, then, becoming a corsair, he entered the service, first to the Mamluks, and then to the son of Bayezid II, Shehzade Korkut, who made him the captain of several ships. Taking his brother Khizir as a companion, Oruch-Reis, as he was called, attacked the ships of Europeans and raided cities on the European coast. The brothers received rich booty, and their fame resounded throughout the Mediterranean. Remembering how he lived during his captivity, Oruch-reis tried to help those who fell into the hands of the knights of Rhodes, ransomed the prisoners with his own money and gave them freedom. The brothers also spent part of their spoils on helping those in need. In 1509 their elder brother Ishaq joined them. In 1513 Oruch-Reis conquered the island of Djerba, which he made his base. The capture of two large galleys belonging to the Pope made him famous throughout Europe.

Monument to Ilyas-Reis in Ayvajik (Turkey) / Source: tripadvisor.com

In 1516, the three brothers managed to free Jijel and Algeria from the Spaniards, they took control of the cities and the surrounding areas, forcing the previous ruler Abu Hammu Musa III from the Zayanid dynasty to flee. During the siege of the port city of Bejaya, Oruch-Reis was wounded in his left arm. On the recommendation of doctors, he had to undergo amputation. It is said that he fitted an iron hook instead of a hand. Oruch- Reis declared himself Sultan of Algeria. But he understood that he would not be able to resist the Spaniards, who sought to return their possessions back. Therefore, in 1517, the navigator offered Algeria to the Turkish Sultan. The Sultan accepted his offer, Algeria became a Sanjak (province) of the Ottoman Empire, and Oruch Reis was appointed Bey (Governor) of Algeria and Beylerbey (Chief Governor) of the Western Mediterranean. In addition, the Sultan promised to support him with janissaries, galleys and cannons.

Oruch Bey captures the galley / Source: en.wikipedia.org

After the Reconquista, Oruch-Reis, together with his brothers, transported a large number of Moriscos and Marrans, Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa, for which he was nicknamed Baba Oruch or Father Oruch. In addition, the brothers sought to provide refugees with housing, food and other assistance in their new homeland. According to one version, from the distortion of the  nickname  Baba Oruch, the name Barbarossa arose, which became another nickname for Oruch-reis.

Oruch-reis / Source: tr.wikipedia.org

Oruch Reis and his brother Ishaq died in 1518 while defending  Tlemcen  from the Tlemcen Emir, who received help from the Spaniards. The Spaniards cut off the head of the corpse, put it in a bag of honey and took it to Spain to present to the king as proof of the death of the  corsair . And the headless body of Oruch-Reis was taken to the city of Algeria and buried in the tomb of Sidi  Abdurrahman , one of the national saints of Algeria, near the mosque of the same name. Today this mausoleum is used as a school for children learning Arabic. In 2018, a monument to Oruch Reis was inaugurated in the city of Ain Temushente in Algeria.

Monument to Oruch Reis in Ain Temushente (Algeria) / Source: en.wikipedia.org

The last surviving brother, Hızır or Hayruddin Barbarossa, inherited the title of his brother, his name, the Navy and became the most powerful and famous Ottoman admiral, ensuring the domination of the Turks in the Mediterranean  Sea  in the XVI century.

Khizir Reis / Source: tr.pinterest.com

Islamosphere

AS A GROUP OF LEADERS OF THE MUSLIM WORLD, SAVED THE ISLAMIC CLASSICS FROM COMPLETE DISAPPEARANCE IN THE 18TH-19TH CENTURIES.


When the Mongol army under the leadership of Khan Hulagu, grandson of Genghis Khan, captured Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols plundered the precious treasures of the House of Wisdom – one of the most important academies at that time with the largest library of the Middle Ages – and threw the books into the Tigris. According to folk legends, then the river turned black from ink. The Mongol invasion marked the end of the “golden age” of Islam and the beginning of the decline of the rich Islamic intellectual tradition, writes Muhammad Nafih Wafi.

However, even during and after the Mongol invasion, some prominent figures of the Islamic world took care of the cultural heritage to the best of their ability. Although the Baghdad library was destroyed, a significant amount of Arabic manuscripts survived in other libraries of the former Abbasid empire.

But in the XIV-XIX centuries. various factors contributed to the massive loss of these books, including titles that we today regard as classics in Islamic thought.

One of the reasons was that during this period the vibrant Islamic intellectual tradition was gradually replaced by the era of textual scholasticism and epistemological esotericism. In addition, the lack of conservation methods, the delay in the introduction of printing technology , and the massive hunt for Islamic classics by Oriental scholars who sold them for huge sums to private collectors and libraries in the West hastened the disappearance of many medieval classical texts.

This is the first full-fledged publication on the impact of the print and publishing industry on Islamic scholarship, according to a statement from Princeton University Press. In it, Ahmed el-Shamsi “tells the fascinating story of how a small group of editors and intellectuals published forgotten works of Islamic literature and defined what became the classical canon of Islamic thought” / Source: en.qantara.de

If it were not for the painstaking efforts of a small group of intellectuals in the 19th and early 20th centuries to find the remaining manuscripts and publish them, the Islamic world would have lost most of its precious classics. This initiative was accelerated by the introduction of the printing press in the Arab world, which helped the reformers in their historic enterprise. These figures, among whom were the likes of Muhammad Abdo, Tahir al-Jaziri and Muhammad al-Shawkani, did much to publish the forgotten works of Islamic literature.

For example, the Egyptian jurist Ahmed Bey al-Husseini hunted for the almost forgotten foundational writings of the Shafi’i school of law. The result was a 24-volume work titled Murshid Al-Anam li-birr Umm al-Imam, a comprehensive commentary on Imam Shafi’i’s al-Umma. Ahmed Bey also organized and financed the publication of the 17-volume al-Umm, which came out between 1903 and 1908. Two centuries before its rediscovery thanks to al-Husseini, Kitab al-Umm, like many other classics, was almost completely forgotten and ignored by readers. Even Shafi’i jurists did not consider it necessary to read the own writings of Imam Shafi’i.

Muhammad Abdo / Source: thereaderwiki.com

In addition to “al-Umm”, the manuscripts, which were given a new life, included some of the fundamental works of the Arab-Islamic world: “Grammar” al-Sibaveikhi (VIII century), interpretation of the Koran at-Tabari (XI century), theology al -Ashari (X century), the Sufi treatise of al-Makki (X century) and the sociology of history of Ibn Khaldun (XIV century).

Most of these works were rare and difficult to obtain in the 19th century, when Islamic scholarly discourse reveled in technical commentaries on earlier works, usually written centuries after the original works. This trend in textual orthodoxy, which prevailed in the Islamic world after the 16th century, limited scholarly discourse to a few popularized texts. Scholars of the time preferred to engage in textual truncations of these commentaries, as well as the compilation of marginal notes and footnotes, while the originals remained gathering dust in book depositories or were appropriated by libraries in the West.

The modern edition of the legal treatise by ash-Shafi’i “Risal” (IX century), the fundamental work on the principles of Islamic jurisprudence. According to Ahmed el-Shamsi, the works of al-Shafi’i, a Muslim scholar and theologian, were among those manuscripts that the reformers gave new life / Source: en.qantara.de

Therefore, the fundamental works written by the founders of various schools of Islamic law, theology, philosophy, linguistics, Sufism and historiography were consigned to oblivion. And this was compounded by a growing esoteric trend that promoted spiritual illumination as the highest form of knowledge acquisition. The Islamic world’s ignorance of its own classical heritage was combined with inadequate funding and an inadequate system for the storage and protection of manuscripts.

Therefore, the reformers had to overcome enormous obstacles, they required enormous philological, organizational and financial resources, as well as considerable time and effort. They had to find and acquire manuscripts, put together complete works from disparate fragments, decipher the texts, despite errors and damage, and understand their meaning without being able to resort to adequate reference material, etc. As a result of this activity, classical works that had been relegated to the background throughout the “post-classical” period began to appear in large numbers in academic and scientific discourses, leading Islamic scholarship throughout the region to revival and reform.

The fascinating history of these reformers and their contribution to the revival of classical Arab-Islamic scholarship is the focus of Ahmed al-Shamsi’s recent English-language book Re-discovering Islamic Classics: How Editors and Print Culture Transformed Intellectual Tradition.

Al-Shamsi writes that the revival of classical literature was part of a broader set of sociocultural changes in the Muslim world, often referred to as nahda (lit .: revival). He argues that the renaissance in the Islamic world was not about the abandonment of the Arab-Islamic intellectual tradition in favor of imported modernity, but the reformers turned to the classical tradition to question the post-classical tradition, which they declared limited and ossified.

Islamosphere

ALI IBN RABBAN AT-TABARI AND HIS POLEMICAL WRITINGS


Prominent scientist and physician Ali ibn Rabban at-Tabari was a Christian of Jewish origin who converted to Islam at the age of 70, writes the Pondering Islam website.

Ali ibn Rabban at-Tabari was born into a family of Syrian Christians of Jewish origin. They call different dates of his life – 838-870, 810-855, 808-864, 783-858. His father Sahl ibn Bishr was a scientist, served as an astrologer for the governor of Khuzistan, and then for the vizier of Baghdad. His son received from him knowledge in medicine, natural sciences, calligraphy, philosophy and literature. Ali ibn Rabban at-Tabari became famous as a doctor and psychologist. He wrote one of the first encyclopedias on medicine, Firdaus al-hikma (Paradise of Wisdom), and is the author of 11 more books, most of which are devoted to medicine. The renowned Muslim physician and philosopher Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi(865-925), considered one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, was his student. Ali ibn Rabban served at the court of the Abbasid caliphs al-Mutasim (833-842) and al-Mutawakkil (847-861). He was so close to the caliphs that he sometimes called them by personal names in his works.

At about the age of 70, Ali ibn Rabban converted to Islam, and then wrote two treatises in which he criticized Christianity – Radd ala-n-nasara (Refutation of Christianity) and Kitab ad-din wa-d-dawla ( “The Book of Religion and State”). In the latter, he substantiated the truth of the prophetic mission of Muhammad (peace be upon him) on the basis of mainly biblical evidence. The arguments he made against Christianity in these two works influenced Islamic polemical literature. Since Ali ibn Rabban was fluent in Syriac and Greek, he read the texts of the Gospelsin the original, carefully comparing them with Christian dogma. Apparently, he had doubts about her even when he was a Christian. For example, in the doctrine of the Incarnation. In his treatise, he writes that this is one of those issues that pushed him away from Christianity.

Source: twitter.com

In Radd ala-n-nasara, Ali ibn Rabban writes: “My intention in what I have stated and established in this book is not to refute Christ (peace be upon him) or the people of his truth, but those Christian sects that oppose Christ and the Gospels, and distort his words. No Muslim will read my book without increasing joy, and no Christian will read it without facing a daunting choice: either abandon their religion and find flaws in its foundations, or find in it what he considers wrong and doubt in this for the rest of his life, since the proof of the rationality and correctness of revelation will become clear to him, if it is the will of Almighty God. “

On the nature of Christ, Ali ibn Rabban writes: “We will ask them [Christians] about Christ – is he the eternal Creator, as stated in their doctrine, or is he a chosen person, as stated in our creed, or is he a God-man, as some of them?

If they say, “He is a man created by [God] and sent [by Him as a messenger],” they agree with the Muslims in their doctrine. And if they say: “No, he is God, Creator and eternal,” they are at odds with the Gospels and other books and do not believe in them. For in chapter 8 of his Gospel Matthew invokes the prophecy of Isaiah, the Book of which says from God, the Great and Mighty: “Behold, my servant (in the Russian translation the word“ youth ”is used), whom I hold by the hand, my chosen one, whom he delights in my soul. I will put My Spirit on Him, and He will declare judgment to the nations, ”testify that Christ (peace be upon him) was a servant.

This is a clear statement, not some inarticulate murmur, and Isaiah was a prophet , not an accuser, and his prophecies are confirmed by the gospel. For a servant cannot be divine, and a Deity cannot be a servant, as you called him.

The Polemical Works of ʿAlī al-Ṭabarī / Source: brill.com

So, Christians, think about this: his disciple Mark wrote in his Gospel that while on the cross, Christ exclaimed: “My God, My God! Why did you leave me? ” And these were his last words on earth. And Matthew says in chapter 20 of his Gospel that Christ took the bread , broke it and gave a piece to the disciples, saying, “This is my flesh.” And he gave them a cup of drink, saying, “This is my blood.”

He who has flesh and blood is a body, and each body has length, width and depth, and that which exists in this way can be measured and weighed. But God – great is His glory! – cannot be measured or weighed, because everything that can be measured is limited, and everything that is limited decays and disintegrates. Luke in chapter 3 of his Gospel, describing Christ (peace be upon him) when he was a child, says: “Jesus prospered in wisdom and age and in love with God and men.” The same chapter says: “The child grew and became strong in spirit, being filled with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon Him.” The Eternal Creator cannot address someone as God, or say that he was a child and the grace of another eternal God dwelt on him. “

“Radd ala-n-Nasara” and “Kitab al-Din wa-e-Daula” have been translated into English and published under the title “polemical writings of Ali al-Tabari » (The Polemical Works of’Alī al -Ṭabarī) in 2016 …

Islamosphere

WHAT DID NIZAM AL-MULK ADVISE IN SIYASAT-NAME?


In his “Siyasat-name”, the prominent statesman of the Islamic world, Nizam al-Mulk, shares his experience in public administration.

Siyasat-name (Book of Government), also known as Siyar al-Mulk (Life of the Rulers), is the most famous work of the prominent statesman of the Islamic world, Nizam al-Mulk (1018-1092), vizier of the Seljuk sultans. Alp Arslan and Malik Shah. Nizam al-Mulk wielded immense power as the head of administration of the Seljuk empire for 30 years. It is believed that thanks to him, Persian forms of government were established in it, which persisted for centuries.

 


“Siyasat-name” was compiled at the request of Sultan Malik Shah. The language of the work is Persian. In total, it consists of 50 chapters dealing with religion, politics and other issues. Each of them contains hadiths and parables rooted in Islamic and sometimes pre-Islamic Persian culture.and history. Popular heroes such as Mahmoud Ghaznevi and the pre-Islamic Shah Khosrov Anushirvan appear in them, who were considered exemplary rulers. The last 11 chapters, written shortly before the assassination of Nizam al-Mulk, are mainly devoted to the dangers facing the empire, in particular the growing threat of the Ismailis. The book covers the role of the army, police, spies and officials and provides ethical advice, emphasizing the need for justice and religious piety in the ruler. Nizam al-Mulk defines in detail what he considers to be justice, in which all social groups in society are “given their due” and the weak are protected. Justice is determined by both customs and Sharia law, and the ruler is accountable to Allah.

Siaset-name: A Book on the Reign of the Wazir of the 11th Century Nizam al-Mulka


Source: livelib.ru

The book presents not only the thoughts of the author, but also the realities of that era. From it one can glean information about the politics and state of the Seljuks, a general understanding of politics in the Turkic and Persian culture, which makes it a valuable historical source. For this reason, it has been translated into many languages ​​and continues to be the object of study for both politicians and historians. The work is written in a simple and fluent language, and therefore is considered easy to understand. Here are some of Nizam al-Mulk’s tips.

“The ruler should make sure that Allah is pleased with him. One can achieve the pleasure of Allah by mercy and kindness towards the people. If the people offer prayers [for the ruler], the state will remain strong. “

“The best rulers are those who communicate with scientists. The worst of the learned are those who seek the favor of the rulers. “

Source: nebesht.com

“Officials need to be encouraged not to behave arrogantly in performing their duties, not to act rudely, collecting kharaj and ushur (taxes), not to demand them when the harvest has not yet been harvested.”

“An employee who has taken an appropriate initiative should be rewarded without delay. And the one who made a mistake should be punished according to his guilt. For the power of the ruler rests on this ”.

“If the padishah shows excessive favor to high-ranking officials of the state, to those who guard the borders, to military leaders, then this deprives them of their fear. And this already brings harm to his power. “

“One should not rush in matters of state. If there are doubts about any issue on the agenda, then an investigation should be ordered. “

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