Ibn Alnafis, Discoverer of Pulmonary Circulation
Ala-al-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi (known as Ibn Al-Nafis) was born in 1213 A.D. in Damascus. He was educated at the Medical College Hospital (Bimaristan Al-Noori) founded by Noor al-Din Al-Zanki. Apart from medicine, Ibn al-Nafis learned jurisprudence, literature and theology. He thus became a renowned expert on the Shafi’i School of Jurisprudence as well as a reputed physician.
In 1236 Ibn Nafis moved to Egypt and worked in Al-Nassri Hospital then in Al-Mansouri Hospital where he became chief of physicians and the Sultan’s personal physician. When he died in 1288 A.D. he donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital.
The most voluminous of his books is Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb, which was designed to be an encyclopedia comprising 300 volumes, but was not completed as a result of his death. The manuscript is available in Damascus. His book on ophthalmology is largely an original contribution and is also extant.
His book that became most famous, however, was Mujaz al-Qanun (The Summary of Law) and a number of commentaries that were written on this same topic. His commentaries include one on Hippocrates’ book, and several volumes on Ibn Sina‘s Qanun, which are still extant.
Likewise he wrote a commentary on Hunayn Ibn Ishaq’s book. Another famous book embodying his original contribution was on the effects of diet on health entitled Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya.
His major original contribution of great significance was his discovery of the pulmonary circulation, which was re-discovered by modern science after a lapse of three centuries. He was the first to correctly describe the constitution of the lungs and gave a description of the bronchi and the interaction between the human body’s vessels for air and blood. He also elaborated on the function of the coronary arteries as suppliers of blood to the cardiac musculature.
Discovering Pulmonary Circulation
The pulmonary circulation according to Ibn Al-Nafis.
The discovery of the pulmonary circulation is an interesting and much debated topic. It is commonly believed that this discovery had its inception in Europe in the sixteenth century by Servetus, Vesalius, Colombo, and finally Harvey.
However, in view of the discovery of ancient manuscripts, it is proposed that the real credit for the discovery of the pulmonary circulation belongs to an eminent physician of the thirteenth century: Ibn Al-Nafis.
In 1924 an Egyptian physician, Dr. Muhyo Al-Deen Altawi, discovered a script titled, “Commentary on the Anatomy of Canon of Avicenna” in the Prussian state library in Berlin while studying the history of Islamic Medicine at the medical faculty of Albert Ludwig’s University in Germany.
This script is considered one of the best scientific books in which Ibn Al-Nafis covers in detail the topics of anatomy, pathology and physiology. This discovery revealed an important scientific fact, which up to then had been ignored: the first description of the pulmonary circulation.
The theory that was accepted prior to Ibn Al-Nafis was placed by Galen in the second century, who had theorized that the blood reaching the right side of the heart went through invisible pores in the cardiac septum to the left side of the heart where it mixed with air to create spirit and was then consequently distributed to the body.
According to Galen’s views, the venous system was quite separate from the arterial system, except when they came in contact through the unseen pores (3). However, Ibn Al-Nafis, based on his knowledge in anatomy and scientific thinking stated that, “…The blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them.
The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit…”
Elsewhere in his book he said, “The heart has only two ventricles …and between these two there is absolutely no opening. Also dissection gives this lie to what they said, as the septum between these two cavities is much thicker than elsewhere. The benefit of this blood (that is in the right cavity) is to go up to the lungs, mix with what is in the lungs of air, then pass through the arteria venosa to the left cavity of the two cavities of the heart…”
In describing the anatomy of the lungs, Ibn Nafis stated, “The lungs are composed of parts, one of which is the bronchi, the second the branches of the arteria venosa and the third the branches of the vena arteriosa, all of them connected by loose porous flesh.”
He then added, “… The need of the lungs for the vena arteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lungs may mix with what there is of air therein and combine with it, the resultant composite becoming fit to be spirit when this mixing takes place in the left cavity of the heart. The mixture is carried to the left cavity by the arteria venosa.” (4)
Another important contribution of Ibn Nafis that is rarely mentioned is his postulation that the nutrition of the heart is extracted from the small vessels passing through its wall, when he said “… Again his (Avicenna’s) statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart…” (4) Ibn Al-Nafis was thus the first to put forward the concept of the coronary circulation.
Europe’s Late Awakening
These important observations were not known in Europe until 300 years later when Andrea Alpago of Belluno translated some of Ibn Al-Nafis’ writings into Latin in 1547 (5). Later, Michael Servetus described the pulmonary circulation in his theological book, “Christianismi Restitutio”, in 1553 and wrote, “…air mixed with blood is sent from the lungs to the heart through the arterial vein; therefore, the mixture is made in the lungs.
The bright color is given to the sanguine spirit by the lungs, not by the heart.” (6). It is worth mentioning that the Church accused Servetus of heresy for opposing the teachings of Galen, and was consequently -with his book -burnt at the stake. Andreas Vesalius described the pulmonary circulation in his book “De Fabrica”, in a manner similar to Ibn Nafis’ description.
An interesting observation is that in the first edition of the book (1543), Vesalius agreed with Galen that the blood “… soaks plentifully through the septum from the right ventricle into the left…” Then in the second edition (1555) he omitted the above statement and wrote instead…”I still do not see how even the smallest quantity of blood can be transfused through the substance of the septum from the right ventricle to the left…” (5). Another similar description was given by Realdus Colombo in 1559 in his book “De re Anatomica” (6).
Then it was William Harvey who, in 1628, demonstrated by direct anatomic observation in laboratory animals the movement of blood from the right ventricle to the lung and then observed the blood returning to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein and again he stated that he could not find any pores in the interventricular septum. He wrote in his monograph, “Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus”: “I began to think there was a sort of motion as in a circle.
I afterwards found true, that the blood is pushed by the beat of the left ventricle and distributed through the arteries to the whole body and back through the veins to the vena cava and then returned to the right auricle, just as it is sent to the lungs through the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle and returned from the lungs through the pulmonary vein to the left ventricle, as previously described.” (6)However, he did not understand the physiology of the pulmonary circulation (dissipation of carbon dioxide and replacement with oxygen), which was fully elucidated by Lavoisier in the 18th century (3).
Views of Some Modern HistoriansIt may be useful to mention the views of a few modern historians who reviewed the works of Ibn Nafis; Mieli said, “We believe that henceforth it is fair to attribute the discovery of the pulmonary circulation to Ibn Nafis who was a distant precursor of the physicians of the sixteenth century Italian School and of William Harvey who, four centuries later, described the whole of the pulmonary circulation in an accurate, clear and definitive manner.”
Max Meyrholf, a distinguished scholar of Arabic historical medicine, stated: “… We have seen that Ibn Nafis, three centuries before Colombo, had already noticed visible passages between the two types of pulmonary vessels.”
In the William Osler Medal Essay on the discovery of the pulmonary circulation, Edward Coppola said, “…The theory of pulmonary circulation propounded by Ibn Nafis in the 13th century was not forgotten and that centuries after his death it may have influenced the direction of the anatomical investigations of Colombo and Valverde, who finally announced it to the Western world as a physiological fact susceptible to experimental proof.” (5)
Sami Haddad (4) from Lebanon published an article in the Annals of Surgery in 1936 about Ibn Nafis and other articles were published also by Ayman et al and Dr. Abdul Kareem Shahadah from Syria showing clearly that Ibn Al-Nafis should be given the credit for the discovery of the pulmonary circulation 300 years before William Harvey was even born!
Religion Might Be Answer to Depression
According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 350 million people worldwide suffer from depression, experiencing symptoms that include feelings of emptiness, restlessness, hopelessness, helplessness, anxiety and loss of interest in most activities.
Depression can sometimes be so severe that it compromises one’s ability to function normally. “Any one at any stage of life can develop depression,” says Dr. Robert Enright, professor of educational psychology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison told AboutIslam.net.
According to the Global Burden of Disease Study, approximately 253 million people all over the world—3.6 percent of the global population—experience major depressive disorder.
Major depression is one of the leading causes of disability in the US and it has a negative impact on the economy. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “The economic burden of depression, including workplace costs, direct costs and suicide-related costs, was estimated to be US$210.5 billion in 2010.”
“There are many causes of depression, one of which is a biological tendency toward the condition…Many people with depression and high anxiety have been treated very unfairly by others,” says Enright.
“Depression can be treated medically through a pharmacological approach. In other words: medicine,” he adds. “But while medicine can control the inner physical world, [the brain] cannot get rid of the anger that sometimes underlies depression.”
Islam gives us tools to deal with non-pathological feelings of sadness.
Religion and Feelings of Depression
Believing in Allah the Creator provides a sense of purpose and contentedness, while religion gives answers to many of life’s existential questions. Overcoming psychological hardships can be aided by having strong faith in Allah while also receiving sound medical attention, as we are taught to do by the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH).
This doesn’t imply that religious people don’t get depressed or that depressed people have weak faith. Depression is a biochemical disorder that can affect anyone regardless of their beliefs.
Faith can, however, provide coping strategies for dealing with psychological illnesses such as depression.
According to a study published in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, “Religious involvement (e.g., service attendance, religious guidance, religious coping) has a protective effect against the incidence and persistence of depressive symptoms and depressive disorders.”
Psychologist Enright says religious involvement can be helpful when treating depression by explaining the meaning of suffering, giving people a sense of purpose and providing hope that depression can end.
In the Qur’an, Allah says, “Those who believe and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allah: for without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find satisfaction” (Surat Ar-Ra’d 13:28).
Abdi Sheikh, one of the Imams of Masjid Sunnah in the city of Madison, Wisconsin, says “We believe that everything that happens to us, good or bad, happens for a reason and Allah is testing us. We read the Qur’an and say ‘Who, when disaster strikes them, say, Indeed we belong to Allah, and indeed to Him, we will return’” (Surat Al-Baqarah 2:156)
Live with Forgiveness
Forgiveness is another strategy for dealing with depression. According to professor Enright, who has been a leader in the scientific study of forgiveness and its effects since 1985, “Forgiveness therapy is a scientifically supported way that reduces the anger that can eventually fuel or intensify both anxiety and depression.”
He adds, “We have scientific studies showing that, if people forgive and get rid of the anger caused by the pain of being treated unjustly, depression goes down.”
According to the Holy Qur’an, “Who spend [in the cause of Allah] during ease and hardship and who restrain anger and who pardon the people – and Allah loves the doers of good” (Surat Ali ‘Imran 3:134).
Abu Hurayrah narrates that the Prophet Muhammed peace and blessings be upon him said: “There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its remedy.” Bukhari 7.582.
Muslim Women and the History of Science
We are well informed about the contributions of men to Islamic and scientific history. However, we often fail to acknowledge the women who brought about change.
Alongside men, Muslim women played an important role in the pre-modern Islamic world as scholars, poets, mystics, rulers and warriors.
Many of the women who were actively involved in healthcare during the times of the Prophet SAW practiced on the battlefield: some solely assisted the wounded, while others also partook in the fighting.
Nusayba bint Ka`b al-Ansariyya was a well-known warrior and medical practitioner. Also known as Umm `Ammara, she was one of the earliest converts to Islam.
She is most recognized for fighting against the pagan Meccans in the Battle of Uhud. When she wasn’t occupied in the battle, she attended to wounded soldiers. Outside the battle zone, she performed circumcisions.
Rufayda Bint Saad Al-Aslamiyya, who also lived at the time of the Prophet Muhammad, is often referred to as “the first nurse in Islam”. She assisted the wounded during the Battle of Badr
She acquired most of her medical knowledge by assisting her physician father, Saad Al-Aslamy. She became an expert healer, to the extent that the Prophet would order all casualties be sent to her tent for treatment.
Other Muslim female nurses and medical practitioners who entered the battlefield and devoted their time and skills to healing the wounded during the time of the Prophet include Umm Sinan Al-Islami (known also as Umm Imara), Umm Matawe` Al-Aslamiyya and Umm Waraqa Bint Hareth.
Remarkable Intellectuals
Many medieval Muslim women successfully pursued mathematics along with their interests in other fields.
Historians such as Ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn al-Khatib Baghdadi and Ibn Kathīr praised Sutayta Al-Mahamali, who was taught under the supervision of several scholars.
She lived in the second half of the 10th century and came from an educated family in Baghdad. Her father was a respected scholar and judge.
Sutayta showed great skills in mathematics, which went beyond a simple aptitude to perform calculations. She excelled in hisab (arithmetics) and fara’idh (successive calculations).
She also made valuable contributions to fields such as Arabic literature, hadith and jurisprudence. She died in the year 377 H/987CE.
Lubna of Cordoba who was among the nobility of the Umayyad Palace in Andalusia was known for her love of academics. Her skills in writing, grammar, poetry, mathematics and other sciences were unparalleled.
Not only was she a figure of intellect, she rose to become the palace secretary of the caliphs Abd al-Rahmān III and his son al-Hakam bin `Abd al-Rahmān.
She was also known for her love of books, and put together a library formed of over half a million books [Ibn Bashkuwal. Kitab al-Silla. (Cairo, 2008), Vol. 2: 324].
Funding Science
Many Muslim women from wealthy backgrounds played major roles in developing civilization and science in the medieval Islamic World.
The famous Zubaida water springs on the outskirts of Mecca carry the name of Zubayda bint Abu Ja`far al-Mansur. The spring was part of the great project she led that built water-well service stations all along the route of the pilgrimage from Baghdad to Mecca.
She was the wife of caliph Harun ar-Rashid, was the wealthiest and most powerful woman in the world of her time, and was a noblewoman of great generosity and munificence.
Fatima al-Fehri was another woman who was devoted to science and development projects. She built a mosque complex in Fes, Morocco, which incorporated the University of Al-Quaraouiyine—one of the first universities in the world; the world’s longest surviving libraries; and a room for time keeping.
Timekeeping rooms, or dar al-muwaqqit (singular), were found in mosques and universities throughout the entire medieval Islamic World. They were used by the astronomers charged with timekeeping calculations and the regulation and maintenance of the clocks. Astronomer muwaqqits had to communicate the correct times of prayer to the muezzins (callers for prayers).
Al-Fehri’s dar al-muwaqqit chamber is found inside the minaret of Al-Quaraouiyine Mosque. The most important object in it is the Al-Lajai water clock. It was made by the astronomer Abu Zaid Abderrahman Ibn Souleiman al-Lajai by order of the Marinid Sultan Abu Salim Ali II.
Dhayfa Khatun was a Queen of Aleppo (in modern-day Syria) for six years where she founded two well-known schools. The first was al-Firdaous School, which was dedicated to Islamic studies and Islamic sharia, especially the Shafi`i doctrine.
The second school, located in Mahalat al-Frafera, was known as the Khahkah School, specializing in sharia and other scientific fields.
Last but not least is Hurrem Sultan. She built a mosque complex in Istanbul and the Haseki Külliye complex, which consisted of a mosque, school and public kitchen. She built a bathhouse with separate sections for men and women, two schools and a women’s hospital. And she founded four schools in Mecca and a mosque in Jerusalem.
History of Islamic Contributions to Science
In the book, “Medicine: A History of Healing,” Ray Porter writes, “Arabic medicine contributed little to the treasures of Greece and Rome.” However, in an article on Islamic plant medicine found in “Herbs for Health Magazine,” David Tschanz writes, “In the middle of the seventh century, Europe was mired in stagnation… For Europe, it was the dark ages. But while Europe lost, then forgot its intellectual heritage, a new force emerged from the Arabian Peninsula.”
So which is true? This new section will bring to light the truth of the second statement and illustrate how the Arabophon world has saved many scientific and medical discoveries as well as improving upon them.
Visitors to the Islamic Museum in Cairo are always astounded at the geographical tools, resources and maps they find, many of which date back to times long before we supposedly discovered that the earth was round. These materials are a tribute to the significant contribution that Islam has made to the field of geography.
While many Muslims actually made significant geographical discoveries, perhaps their most valuable contribution lies in the fact that they shared their knowledge with the West; thus influencing too the dispersal of world knowledge about Islam.
One of the key figures in this sharing of knowledge was the Moroccan geographer, Abu Abdallah Al-Idrisi. However, before him, a long line of Muslim explorers left their marks on the world.
The earliest Islamic geographical works still available today date back to the 9th century during the rule of Ma’mun. A map of the world was actually drawn during this period that is said to be more accurate than that of Ptolemy, the Western expert of the time.
During the 10th and 11th centuries, the work of Muslim geographers took on more of an Islamic flavor, focusing on Islamic lands and often making Mecca the center of the world.
However, as Muslims traveled more and more for trade, increasingly accurate maps were drawn that started with China or India and continued to expand.
It was about this time that Muslims realized that many existing maps, collected during their travels and contact with the Greeks and Persians, were inaccurate.
Indeed, cooperation and integration with other cultural and religious groups are a part of the great legacies left by early Muslims. While people of other religions and cultures were largely suspicious of outsiders, Muslims during these eras had a great tolerance for people of other religions whom the Qur’an had told them were also “people of the book.”
They were not scared to mix with non-Muslims, considering them as potential converts to Islam and kindred spirits amongst Allah’s Creation (The History of God by Karen Armstrong).
The Prophet’s (SAW) teachings also encouraged Muslims to “seek knowledge even if it be in China,” and the Qur’an itself created an environment in which science and religion could merge and not be at odds.
In addition, the unified structure of the Islamic world and the Hajj, which enables pilgrims from all over the Islamic world to gather, facilitated the exchange of ideas between diverse groups.
Abu Abdallah Al-Idrisi provided an ultimate example of how this kind of openness and cooperation can result in great works. His world map was based upon Islamic and Hellenistic sources and is said to “mark the apogee of Islamic geography in this domain” (Islamic Science by Sayyed Hussein Nasr).
The map was actually not even created for the Muslim world; it was a part of a geographical encyclopedia called The Book of Roger created for King Roger II in Sicily who was a Christian, and was accompanied by a 400-pound silver globe on which was drawn, in great accuracy, the entire earth and all its measurements.
Although some of the more extreme Muslims of the time rejected him as a “renegade who worked in the Christian court,” the titles of many of his works reflect his deep influence by Islam.
The Book of Roger, his first work, was also called Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq (The delight of him who desires to journey through the climates) and his second book was called Rawd-Unnas wa-Nuzhat al-Nafs (Pleasure of men and delight of souls).
Al-Idrisi also made major contributions to the field of medicine by writing several revised compilations of historical herbals from around the world such as the Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. Through them, the evaluation of a large number of plants became available to medical practitioners.
Al-Idrisi even listed the names of the plants/medicines in six languages: Syriac, Greek, Persian, Hindi, Latin, and Berber.
Hunter Instinct: Stress in Modern Medicine
Stress is one of those human instinctive survival mechanisms that Allah (SWT) has bestowed upon us. It keeps us on our toes so that we can respond to immediate demands with a quick release of energy, such as when we must brake suddenly to avoid hitting an animal or another car.
When our children are in physical danger, we protect them in ways that would not be feasible under normal circumstances.
The heart beats rapidly, our rate of breathing increases, and perspiration starts to flow during such responses. Once the danger is gone, we begin to relax.
Commonly known as the ‘fight or flight’ reflex, we live in a state of alert; however, the competitive world we live in greatly increases the demands on this survival mechanism.
Our modern lives are full of constant changes and constant decisions; and fear, impatience, ambition, dissatisfaction, and everyday human rights issues prolong the sense of danger we experience in emergencies so that what was a natural reflex begins to wear on our physical, psychological and spiritual bodies.
When we are increasingly feeling bad, consciously or unconsciously, it darkens our human energy fields.
Harmful Effects of Stress
During stress, the adrenal glands release adrenaline for longer periods of time, the heart beats faster and more irregularly, and the blood vessels contract to prevent blood loss in the extremities (fingers and toes).
The hypothalamus (hind-brain), which regulates rhythmic activity and physiological stability, prepares the body for action. The body retains sodium, which increases water retention.
These stress responses affect the body’s ability to assimilate what it needs. Fats and proteins typically stored in the liver, stomach, and skin are broken down and released as the body is misinformed that it requires further energy.
The stomach secretes more acid, but cannot resume its digestive function. Glands become both overactive and under-active, and the immune system becomes depleted.
Meanwhile, the various centers within our human energy fields become disorientated; if the stress is prolonged and we don’t get the required support from family, friends, and co-workers, it can result in damage to our defense mechanism – often exhibited as some form of mental illness. During extreme stress, one becomes irritated, easily angered or fatigued, lethargic and/or depressed.
In the United States, the combined costs of stress-related disorders to the work industry from absenteeism, insurance and health costs, and diminished productivity are thought to run about $85 billion. The cost of stress-related coronary heart disease alone is $35 billion.
In Britain, at least 40 million working days are lost each year due to the effects of stress. It is estimated that stress-related illnesses cost the British medical and social services an average of 55 million sterling pounds per year, and account for a loss of 2 to 3% in the gross national product.
The Framingham heart study discovered that female clerical workers have high rates of heart disease. The workers who are most likely to suffer from stress-related illnesses are those who have 1) very psychologically demanding jobs; 2) little control over their work; and 3) very little social support (isolation from co-workers).
Stress also impacts those who suffer excessive monotony, boredom, or frustration because of insufficient stimulus or challenge, and they typically become ill frequently.
An increasing number of young Muslim women are recognizing this and are embracing the challenge of successfully completing their education and going on to gainful employment for their own self-development.
Other Causes of Stress
Stress has environmental and chemical causes too. Although the initial response of caffeine and other stimulants in coffee, tea and cola drinks is to make us more alert, they also boost the output of stress hormones and, shortly after, they can cause feelings of irritability as well as sleeplessness.
Signs of stress include headaches, sleeping difficulties, muscle tension, water retention, lack of concentration, anxiety, fear and panic attacks, apathy and despair, social withdrawal, sexual difficulties, alcohol drinking, taking tranquilizers, eating too much or too little food, and smoking.
Prolonged stress can contribute towards long-term illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, ulcers, cancer, asthma, and serious mental disorders.
Within the family, sources of stress include the arrival of an infant (often manifested in post-natal depression), menstruation and menopause, death, divorce, wedding preparations, children, fractious babies, problems with in-laws, and infidelity (as Muslims, we shouldn’t have this problem, but some do).
Stress can provide the opportunity for growth as Allah (SWT) often tests our abilities to cope with change and what it has to offer.
When we are optimistic and hopeful, we are more likely to experience stress as potentially positive. Emotion-focused activities enable us to manage distress more easily.
Cohn and Park, in their article entitled “Assessment and Prediction of Stress-Related Growth” in the Journal of Personality (1996) report that relying on one’s personal relationship with God and on religious social support strongly affects growth.
Different Perspectives
Religious beliefs provide a framework in which we can appraise potentially threatening situations as challenging rather than intimidating.
It is when we lose ourselves in the demands of the material world and forget, even briefly, what we are in the scheme of Allah’s (SWT) universe that we set up a pattern for negative energy and pathological behavior that can become established within us.
Some current psychologists are arguing that stress does not exist. Dr. Rob Briner, an occupational psychologist at London University’s Birbeck College, believes that feeling bad at work is normal.
The book, The Stress Myth, written by psychologist Serge Doublet (U.S.), questions the validity of stress as a concept.
He argues, “People feel ‘stressed’ because they believe in the first place that feeling ‘stressed’ is a legitimate condition… Without such a belief, the subjective feeling is not possible.”
Renowned psychoanalyst, C. J. Jung, seemingly responds to this when he says, “And if the psychologist happens to be a doctor who wants not only to classify his patient scientifically but also to understand him as a human-being, he is threatened with a conflict of duties between the two diametrically opposed and mutually exclusive attitudes of knowledge, on the one hand, and understanding on the other” (Routledge).
Surat Ali Imran (3), ayat 186, says, “You shall certainly be tried respecting your wealth and your souls, and you shall certainly hear – from those who have been given the Book before you and from those who are polytheist – much annoying talk; and if you are patient and guard (against evil), surely this is one of the affairs (which should be) determined upon.”
