A Bedouin in a desert was once asked about God. His answer was: “The
track indicates the walking of a person and camel dung indicates a camel has
passed by. Wouldn't the celestial constellations of the sky, Earth’s plains
between mountains, and seas with their waves reveal the presence of God?”
This was a direct, simple, straightforward answer from a simple,
uneducated man who lived several centuries ago. What would his answer be
today? Would he change his mind under the influence of some secular
educational systems and some secular mass media coverage which are usually
biased in favour of atheism? (7)
Both secular education and some secular media slyly propagate the idea
that the universe and life simply came into existence coincidentally through
Mother Nature. They both pave the road to atheism and serve to shape the
situation against religion. Therefore, atheism is nowadays more compelling to
a large number of people. Nonetheless, is what has been propagated the
truth?
In this booklet, we will discover that the answer is “No”, because, in
contrast to what they actually have propagated, scientists are piling up huge
facts supporting theism (8). In other words, the more we know about the
universe, Earth and life, the more we realise that all these extremely complex
natural intricacies and perfectly accurate mechanisms have no chance to exist
by chance. They all point to God, the Supreme Creator. We will learn that
there is no contradiction between faith and science. On the contrary, the more
we are knowledgeable, the more we have faith in God. We will also discover
that even Darwin who put forth the evolution theory, believed in God, though
he did not believe that Christianity is a revealed religion of God.
“In the creation of the heavens and Earth, and in the alternation of night and
day, are signs for people of understanding.” (Qur’an, 3:190)
“From among His servants, the learned fear God.” (Qur’an, 35:28)
In addition, we will also discuss the need of faith for mankind who
acquired his soul from the breath of God in his body. We will discover that
our souls will never rest unless we believe in God and reform our lives
according to His Will.
We will also discuss how we can find the Straight Path of God, which
guarantees our joy in this life and the life to come.
7
Figure 1: A simple illiterate Bedouin was able to realise that as
the track is a sign of a walking person, so the celestial
constellations are signs of God. Why do we fail to see the signs of
God, though they are all around us in everything we see or touch?
8
2.EVIDENCE FOR THE SUPREME
CREATOR
2.1.The Universe
The universe includes all of time and space and its contents. It includes
moons, planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest
subatomic particles and all matter and energy.
The observable universe is about 91 billion light-years in size. A lightyear
is more than 9 trillion kilometres. The exact size of the whole universe is
not known and may be either finite or infinite. However, the observations and
development of physical theories have led to inferences about the composition
and evolution of the universe (8).
The universe is expanding, and its rate of expansion has been accelerating.
Cosmic microwave background radiation suggests that the universe had a
beginning. The majority of energy in the universe leading to its accelerated
expansion is unknown and is called Dark Energy. The majority of mass in the
universe appears to exist in an unknown form, called Dark Matter. Dark
Matter neither emits nor absorbs light or any other electromagnetic radiation
and it constitutes 26.8% of the total mass-energy in the universe.
Our Solar System is located in a galaxy composed of billions of stars and
it is called the Milky Way. It is assumed that the distribution of the countless
galaxies in the universe is uniform and the same in all directions.
The stars are moving in an orderly fashion through the galaxies and are
surrounded by planets that orbit them in an organised and systematic manner.
Around some planets are small moons which move in regular orbits.
The smallest discrete building blocks of the universe are the atoms. An
atom consists of a positively-charged nucleus which gives it its weight. This
atom is orbited by small, negatively-charged electrons. This system is very
similar to solar systems in the universe and galaxies and is governed by a
similar set of laws of motion (9).
Now after this brief clarification about the universe, the question is: Who
originated the tiniest atoms and the endless universe? Have they come from
nothing? Aren’t they signs of God, the Omnipotent Creator?
9
Figure 2: The observable universe (left) is about 91 billion light-years big. A
light year is more than 9 trillion kilometres. The Milky Way Galaxy (right).
“In the creation of the Heavens and Earth, and in the alternation of night and
day, are signs for people of understanding.” (Qur’an, 4:82)
“Or were they created out of nothing? Or are they the creators?” (Qur’an,
52:35)
2.2. The Uniform Laws of Nature
Scientists use the concept of law, which is a logical mathematical language
to describe the existing properties of nature. This is possible because of the
behaviour of nature that permits scientific laws to be discovered and described
with mathematical formulae (10).
The concept of law has been applied in all fields of science, including
classical physics, mathematical physics, optics, fluid dynamics, cosmology,
astronomy, biology, chemistry, etc. Everything in the universe, starting from
the tiniest electron in an atom to a huge galaxy, follows the laws of nature.
The intelligibility of these laws cannot be considered a consequence of
natural selection or evolution, as was proposed for biological systems.
Who set these laws in order? Is it possible that Mother Nature,
randomness, or coincidence has created defined sets of intricate laws,
providing that these laws maintain and regulate everything in the universe and
keep it in harmony and order? Isn’t the amazing consistency of scientific laws
in all fields a witness to the presence of the Super-Intelligent Originator? (11)
This leads us to the conclusion that God has planned, designed,
proportioned and created everything in the universe, from the tiniest
electron in an atom to the huge galaxies in the endless universe. He has kept
them in harmony and order through finely-tuned and perfect laws.
10
“Everything We created is precisely measured.” (Qur’an, 54:49)
“Everything with Him is in (due) proportion.” (Qur’an, 13:8)
“Do you not realise that to God prostrates (submits to His Law) whatever in
the heavens and everyone on Earth?” (Qur’an, 22:18)
Robin Collins–a professor with three degrees and two doctorates in
mathematics, physics and philosophy–said:
“The extraordinary fine-tuning of the laws and constants of nature, their
beauty, their discoverability, their intelligibility – all these combine to make
the God hypothesis the most reasonable choice we have. All other theories
fall short.” (12)
2.3. Fine-tuning of the Universe to Support life
2.3.1. The Balance Between Expansion and Gravity
During the Big Bang
The universe has been finely-tuned or adjusted to make the development of
life on Earth possible. This can be observed right from the beginning, during
the Big Bang.
When the Big Bang occurred billions of years ago, there were just atoms
floating about in the dark void of space. The strength of gravity then had to be
just exactly right for stars to form.
If gravity were changed by even a tiny fraction (one billionth of a gram
heavier or lighter), there would have been no stars, galaxies or planets.
On the contrary, if gravity had been stronger, the stars and galaxies would
have quickly collapsed and cosmic history could have been over by now.
On the other hand, the universe must have maintained an extremely
precise overall density. A change of one part in 1015 (i.e. 0.0000000000001%)
would have resulted in a collapse or a rapid expansion of the universe so that
no stars, galaxies or life could have formed (13).
2.3.2. Fine-tuning of Atoms
The atom consists of three major particles: protons, neutrons and
electrons. The negatively-charged electrons are kept in orbits around the
nucleus by the electromagnetic force of the positively-charged nucleus. On the
11
Figure 3: Since its birth 15 billion years ago the universe has been expanding.
The strength of gravity had to be just right exactly for stars to be formed.
other hand, in the nucleus, there is a strong force which opposes the force of
electromagnetic repulsion between protons and keeps them together in the
nucleus (13).
Without the strong force, there would be no atoms larger than hydrogen,
which has only one proton, (i.e. no repulsion between protons exists) and
consequently, no matter or complex molecules for life would exist.
If the strong nuclear force were weaker, there would be no long-lived stars
like the sun, no water and probably no complicated chemistry in the universe
(13).
If the strong force were stronger, all the hydrogen in the universe would
have been burned into helium in the Big Bang, or at least the production of
carbon and oxygen in stars would be greatly reduced (14).
Carbon is an important element for all forms of known life. The strong
nuclear and electromagnetic forces cooperate to create the energy levels which
enable the production of carbon from the fusion of three helium atoms. The
slightest change in the nuclear force and electromagnetic force would alter the
energy levels, and greatly reduce the production of carbon (15).
2.3.3. Fine-tuning of Our Galaxy
Our sun is one of more than two hundred billion stars that make up the
flat disk Milky Way Galaxy.
12
The sun and our Solar System are located in a stable orbit within our
Milky Way Galaxy. This orbit lies far from the centre of our galaxy and
therefore, it is safer because it is removed from the more densely occupied
areas, where stellar interactions disturb planetary orbits (13).
The stars which orbit the centre of the galaxy do not remain there for long
and are eventually swept inside a spiral arm. In addition, most of the stars in
our galaxy are distant enough from our Solar System, and therefore we get
lower amounts of radiation which would have badly affected our Solar
System.
Also, the solar system is far away from the deadly effects of
the explosion of a star that has reached the end of its life, or what is called
supernovae explosions.
2.3.4. Fine-tuning of Earth for Life
In addition to the location of our solar system—which makes it less-likely
to suffer from collisions with other stars, as explained above—the location of
Earth is perfectly positioned in relation to the sun to support life. If the
distance was greater, Earth would have been too cool for a stable water cycle
to form and if the distance was shorter, it would have been too warm for a
stable water cycle. The Earth is also not too close to the giant gas planets like
Jupiter to suffer from orbit-drifting.
In our Solar System, there are hundreds of thousands of asteroids and
meteoroids located between Mars and Jupiter, collectively called the Kuiper
Belt. The largest object in this asteroid belt is called Ceres, and its diameter is
approximately 945 Km. What would happen to Earth if Ceres was to hit it?
This disaster does not happen because of the strong gravitational force of
Jupiter, which keeps large asteroids and meteoroids from hitting Earth (16).
The Earth’s orbit is in what is called a star's “habitable zone”—where it is
capable of having liquid water which is essential for life. Water is an excellent
solvent, which is capable of dissolving many substances, and hence it helps
and facilitates life's essential biochemical processes to take place. Unlike
many other liquids, water floats when it is frozen, which would insulate the
underlying fluid from freezing further.
13
Figure 4: The electromagnetic force holds electrons and the strong force
holds protons in atoms (left). The sun lies far from the dense centre of our
galaxy (right).
The inclination of the orbit of Earth around the sun is adjusted to allow
life. If it were greater, the temperature range on the planet's surface would be
too extreme and if it were more eccentric seasonal temperature range would
be too extreme for life to exist.
Unlike gas planets, Earth is a terrestrial planet with a solid surface (crust).
The crust is extremely important in maintaining life on Earth by recycling
minerals and nutrients (17)
The Earth is characterised by the presence of plate tectonics. These plate
tectonics and drifts have led to the formation of separate land masses
(continents), with diverse ecosystems which allow for the presence and
sustenance of the diverse forms of complex life.
Plate tectonics also regulate the levels of carbon dioxide and keep the
global temperature stable. They are also involved in the generation of a
magnetic field by the convection of Earth’s partially-molten core.
The size of Earth is suitable for life to emerge. A smaller planet, like Mars,
could not hold the atmosphere needed for life. On the contrary, a larger planet,
like Neptune, would trap too much atmosphere, and consequently, the
temperature would greatly increase and harmful gases in the atmosphere
would be trapped.
The large nickel-iron core is responsible for the production of Earth’s large
magnetic field. This magnetic field acts as a radiation shield by deflecting the
14
solar winds and protects Earth from radiation bombardment. Solar radiation
damages the DNA of organisms and causes mutations.
The magnetic field of Earth protects the atmosphere from solar erosion.
The other rocky planet in our solar system that has a magnetic field is
Mercury. However, because its magnetic field strength is 100 times less than
Earth's, it has almost no atmosphere (18)
The Earth has the right gravitational force to hold its atmosphere. The
atmosphere protects life-forms from harmful solar radiations, protects Earth
from asteroids—which burn up when they enter the atmosphere (Figure 6)—
and keeps a suitable average temperature to support life.
The atmosphere also contains the right proportion and amounts of gases. If
the oxygen quantity in the atmosphere was greater, plants and hydrocarbons
would burn up too easily, and if it were less, it would be insufficient for
supporting a large number of organisms to exist. On the other hand, if the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was higher or lower, the
greenhouse phenomenon and an inefficient photosynthesis would respectively
happen (19) Methane is one such greenhouse gas. Interestingly, scientists have
discovered a kind of bacterium which can metabolise and consume 300
million tonnes of methane each year. Did this organism come by chance or did
God create it?
One of the layers of the atmosphere is the ozone layer. If the ozone
quantity in this layer were greater or lesser, the UV radiation would be
respectively too little or too intense for life to exist.
The atmospheric pressure is adjusted to control water evaporation. Low
atmospheric pressure would lead to the evaporation of water too easily and
decrease its condensation, while higher atmospheric pressure would lead to
inadequate evaporation of water.
2.4. The Importance of the Moon for Life
The Earth's moon is unusually large, and therefore it works as a stabilising
anchor for our planet. Our moon prevents our planet from tilting too far from
the attraction of the sun or Jupiter. It also protects Earth from many asteroids
that cross the path of the planet (20)
The moon’s gravitational effect maintains the degree of the tilted rotational
axis of Earth, and this keeps stable the season’s cycle as Earth orbits the Sun.
If the moon hadn’t existed or had been much smaller, the slope of our poles
15
Figure 5: Earth’s magnetic field protects Earth’s
atmosphere from erosion by solar winds.
Figure 6: Jupiter protects Earth from most of the short-period comets
driven from the Kuiper belt, which is shown as a dotted lighter area.
would have been very different, which could have had devastating
consequences on the climate and life on our planet.
Without the gravitational effect of the moon, Earth would complete its
rotation around its axis once every 8 hours instead of 24 hours. With this high
rotational speed, there would be less time for the sun to heat up Earth.
Therefore, there would be a substantial drop in the temperature on Earth and
the temperature variations would be too abrupt in the transition from day to
night. Consequently, winds would be more powerful and violent and Earth’s
magnetic field would be three times more intense. These together would have
a major impact on food production and would not favour the life forms
inhabiting Earth.
The moon affects the liquid envelope of Earth and causes the rise and fall
of tides. The oceans' tidal flow helps to transport heat from the equator to the
poles. The moon’s tidal force also causes significant heating and dissipation of
16
energy to take place and influences the biology of some species living in
water or near the coasts.
“And He committed the sun and the moon to your service, both continuously
pursuing their courses, and He committed the night and the day to your
service.” (Qur’an, 14:33)
From the above-given examples, we may conclude that God planned
everything to support life on Earth, and accordingly, He organised and tuned
the tiny atoms and the whole vast universe to support life to exist and flourish
on Earth. This is not surprising as God holds the keys of everything and when
He wills a thing, He just says to it, "Be," and it is (Qur’an, 36:82)
“It is He who created everything for you on Earth, then turned to the heavens,
and made them seven heavens. And He is aware of all things.” (Qur’an, 2:29)
Figure 7: Currently, Earth is tilted 23.4o under the influence of the
gravitational force of the moon.
17
3. Improbability of the Spontaneous
Emergence of Life
Atheists have faith that life evolved spontaneously from chemicals at
least once. Although passing a spark through a chosen mixture of gases may
form amino acids–which are the building blocks of proteins–this synthesis of
amino acids will never lead to the formation of a living cell, as we will find
out.
3.1. The Left-handed Amino Acids (21)
A functional protein will never be formed in nature outside living cells
because amino acids are stereo-chemically two kinds; left-handed and righthanded.
Only proteins containing left-handed amino acids are functional in
living cells. In laboratory experiments where a spark is used for chemical
synthesis of amino acids, there would be a mixture of left and right-handed
amino acids. Therefore–for the sake of argument–even if a protein is formed
in nature, it would be useless because it would be made of a mixture of both
right- and left-handed amino acids.
Proteins are made of hundreds of amino acids. If we have a 300 amino acid
protein (say, an enzyme, for example) it would not be functional unless all
these amino acids are precisely arranged in their correct order. The probability
of precisely and correctly arranging these amino acids is 1/20300–or 1 chance
in 2.04 x 10390–which is nearly impossible. Mathematicians generally agree
that, statistically, any odds beyond 1 in 10 to the 50th (1:1050) have a zero
probability of ever happening.
On the other hand, there is a need for at least 400 enzymes to coexist and
to simultaneously work together in orchestration in a single living cell. It may,
therefore, be concluded that the formation of the simplest single-cell organism
is impossible and would need an extraordinary miracle to happen, or else have
been created by God, the Magnificent Designer and the Creator.
3.2. Protein Synthesis Machinery
Living cells contain the hereditary material (DNA) which carry the
required information for protein synthesis. The ribosomal nucleic acids
(RNAs) check out the information from the DNA and line up the amino acids
of proteins in sequence. This task could only be done in a living cell because:
18
Figure 8: While chemically synthesised, amino acids (left) are 50% lefthanded
(L-isomer) and 50% right-handed (D-isomer), but only left-handed
amino acids are usually used in biologically-active proteins and must be
precisely arranged. A functional protein has to be folded into a highly
complex, three-dimensional shape (right diagram) by a protein called
chaperonin which also only exists in living cells.
• The living cell only is capable of synthesising the left-handed amino acids
required for proteins to function.
• For a new protein to be biologically functional it must fold into a highly
complex, three-dimensional shape. Even the slightest change in the folding
process can turn a protein into a non-functional form. Only living cells can
fold such proteins using specialised proteins called chaperonins (22).
• Newly-made proteins must contain an amino acid string that determines the
eventual proper place in the cell. Living cells need each protein to be
precisely located in the correct place in order to function. Who would
provide a spontaneously-formed protein with this directing string?
• The cell needs to synthesise proteins only when required. If the cell does
not contain the information to correctly turn on and off the production of
proteins, its synthesis will continue until the cell is exhausted and dies.
Therefore, we may conclude that making a functional protein of left-handed
amino acids—folded properly, directed to the right location, and produced
only when needed—would not happen unless in a living cell created by God.
3.3. The DNA code
For any living cell to exist and to be functional, very detailed instructions
must be available and recorded in the form of chromosomal DNA. The DNA
19
is made up of four types of building units which are arranged in chains. These
building units are abbreviated as A, T, G, and C. There are four million of
these letters (building units) in each bacterial cell, and three billion of these in
each human cell. These building units are precisely arranged to spell out the
detailed programmes which control everything in the living cell including the
instructions required for the synthesis of proteins. The DNA in the tiny
bacterial cell–which is one micrometre in length–contains as much
information as a 1000-page book! Any change in the sequence of even a
single DNA building unit, could lead to a non-functional protein and
consequently a handicapped or dead bacterial cell depending on its importance
(24).
It is logical to accept the idea that a sophisticated computer programme
needs an intelligent programmer. Aren’t these DNA programmes of a
living cell and their massive amount of information a proof for the existence
of an intelligent programmer and manufacturer?
In sophisticated creatures like humans, we have additional DNA
programmes to orchestrate different types of cells in each organ, and DNA
programmes to orchestrate all organs to eventually create a healthy human.
In addition, there are also countless DNA programmes in countless
unicellular and multicellular organisms in different ecosystems which
orchestrate the coexistence of all living creatures on Earth.
Who, other than God–the Supreme Creator and Designer–is behind
these intelligent countless DNA programmes?
“And (He) created everything and determined its measure.” (Qur’an, 25:2)
“You will not find any change in God's Sunnah (decreed Law), and you will
not alter God's Sunnah.” (Qur’an, 35:43)
20
Figure 10: A lysed bacterial cell (1micromiter in length). The stringy
material surrounding it is the released chromosomal DNA.
3.4. The Minimum Genetic Material of a Living
Cell
Any living bacterium has to be able to copy its DNA, transcribe and
translate it into protein, and to coordinate all the steps involved in cell
division. It has to be able to synthesise all needed things which are not
available in its environment. For this to be carried out, the cell has to have a
genome carrying all the genes which harbour all the information required to
carrying out all these functions.
The smallest known bacterial genome consists of 480 genes and is found
in a bacterium called Mycoplasma genitalium (25). After years of intensive
research, it was possible to reduce the 480 genes of M. genitalium to 250-gene
which are the minimal set of essential genes required for the M. genitalium to
live and function.
Therefore, this minimal microbial cell is an irreducible system, wherein
the removal of any of the 250 genes would cause the bacterial cell to cease
functioning and die. In other words, for this bacterial cell to exist as a living
entity, it needs all these genes. As previously mentioned, each gene consists of
perhaps a thousand building units (nucleotides), which have to be arranged in
a correct order for the gene to be functional.
How would all these functional genes, cell membranes and other cellular
organelles come together simultaneously by chance for a minimal cell to
emerge as a living bacterial cell? Therefore, even this minimal cell cannot
emerge by chance and it could not be further abstracted to a less-sophisticated
form. Doesn’t this bacterial cell require a Super-Intelligent, All-Mighty, and
All-Knowing Creator?
21
Figure 11: Mycoplasma genitalium is a type of a sexually transmitted
bacterium. It possesses a small genome which carries 480 genes.
3.5. Cell Membrane (23)
Each cell is surrounded by a membrane made of two layers of
phospholipids. These types of lipids are synthesised by accurately controlled
reactions which exist only inside living cells. The membrane serves as a
barrier to prevent the contents of the cell from escaping and mixing with the
surrounding environment.
Through membranes, nutrients pass inward and wastes pass outward. The
membrane is also supported by highly selective channels and pumps, formed
from protein molecules that allow specific substances to be imported while
others can be exported.
Some protein molecules in the membrane act as sensors to enable the cell
to respond to the changes in the environment. For this membrane to do its
function it has to be completely intact with all its components present.
Anything missing (i.e. phospholipids, structural proteins, sensors, pumps or
enzymes) would render this structure useless. A useless membrane means the
death of the cell. How would that membrane emerge spontaneously?
Who but God planned this irreducible complex membrane which is
essential for a living cell right from its beginning?
Figure 9: For a living cell to function, it needs sophisticated machinery consisting
of a number of organelles, like the membrane (left) and a larger number of
proteins. The membrane is a highly sophisticated structure with highly selective
channels and pumps of proteins and enzymes.
22
We may, therefore, conclude that the building materials of a living cell
are incredibly complex and are impossible to be formed spontaneously in
nature. Even if one component of a living cell were to be formed by chance, it
is useless in the absence of thousands of others, and it would spontaneously
degrade while waiting for these other components to exist.
In addition, for a living cell to exist there must be a massive amount of
stored, inherited information in the form of genes. Any change in the sequence
of the building units of genes could be lethal to the living cell.
If nature has failed over billions of years to spontaneously make a simple
working machine like a watch by chance, though all required elements are
available in nature, why then would one imagine that nature could create
the much more sophisticated living cell?
Figure 12: The friction a meteoroid entering Earth’s atmosphere raises its
temperature to 1,650 degrees C. This kills any living organism.
23
4. Is it Possible for Life to Have
Come from Space?
Because, as previously explained, the spontaneous emergence of the first
living cell or its components is scientifically impossible, some atheists
proposed that life started somewhere else in the space, where conditions could
be permissible, and then came to Earth.
If so the living cell or part of its components would have to travel a long
journey through space during which it would be exposed to the destructive
effect of UV and cosmic rays in addition to the extremely cold weather.
The exposure of unprotected cellular components like the hereditary
material (DNA) to the solar UV light and the cosmic ionising radiation would
lead to their damage and destruction. Therefore, the transport of an
unprotected DNA in the space during interplanetary flights is extremely
unlikely (45).
On the other hand, experimental data suggest that the transport of an
unprotected resistant life form, like a bacterial spore, through the space
environment will cause its destruction in a mere few seconds. If the spores are
shielded by embedding them in a clay or meteorite powder, they may survive
in the space for up to 6 years. However, in this case, rocks greater than or
equal to 1 meter in diameter are required to effectively shield and protect
bacterial spores against cosmic radiations (46).
However, this is not the whole story because in addition to the problem of
the damaging radiations during space travelling, there is another major
problem which faces the meteor when it enters the atmosphere of the Earth.
A meteor moves through the vacuum of space at very high speeds which
reaches tens of thousands of kilometres per hour. When this meteor hits the
atmosphere, the air in front of it is compressed quickly and its temperature
rises up to as high as 1,650 degrees C. Therefore, the meteor is usually burnt
by the air until nothing of it is left. That is why we see meteors glowing in the
sky (Figure 12). Obviously, at that extremely high temperature, no resistant
life form or any of its organic components would still exist (47).
24
We may, therefore, conclude that the assumption of life to have been
developed somewhere in the space before coming to the Earth is
practically impossible.
5.DARWINISM
Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by Charles
Darwin (1809 -1882) and others. According to this theory of evolution, living
things have descended from a single common ancestor, in much the same way
that a tree, springing from a single root, produces separate and increasingly
distant branches (26).
The evolution theory states that organisms arise and develop through a
process of natural selection of inherited variations that increase the
individual's ability to compete, survive and reproduce in different
environments.
Initially, Darwinism was met with opposition from scientists; however, it
eventually has received overwhelming acceptance in the scientific
community. Today, Darwinism as a theory is facing several scientific
challenges and objections.
The more we know about molecular biology, the more we find scientific
evidence against the Darwinian theory of evolution. The following points are
just some examples of the objections against Darwinism.
5.1. Some Challenges to Darwinism
5.1.1. The Cambrian Period
The Cambrian Period is defined as the first geological period of the “time
of ancient life”. This period lasted from 541 to 485.4 million years ago. It was
marked by a dramatic burst of evolutionary changes in life forms on Earth,
known as the "Cambrian Explosion". This evolutionary burst produced the
first representatives of all modern animal phyla.
Why were the transitions between the major groups characteristically
abrupt? Isn’t that an evidence for the Will of the Creator? (27)
According to evolution theory, simpler species should have appeared first
and gradually become more complex. However, on the contrary, the fossil
records demonstrate that members of the animal kingdom have been very
25
different from one another and very complex ever since they first appeared,
and they all appeared at the same time during the Cambrian Period.
How could evolutionary theory explain this dramatic burst and the
appearance of the first representatives of all modern animal phyla?
26
Figure 13: There are at least a quarter of a million of fossils of
different species in the life tree. However, there is no steady line of
fossils, from the beginning of life until modern species. The
intermediate forms or evolutionary ‘gaps’ have not been filled.
A B
27
Figure 14: The record of the fossils demonstrates that members of the
animal kingdom have been very different from one another (A) and very
complex (B) ever since they first appeared on Earth at the same time
during the geological era of the Cambrian Period.
5.1.2. Structural Complexity
Evolution was a convincing explanation to scientists because they thought
that structures were simple. They did not realise that evolution actually
requires staggeringly-complicated biochemical processes. Therefore, the
sophistication of creatures and their organelles as discovered by biochemistry
and molecular biology have provided challenges to Darwinian evolution. Let
us take the example of the hair-like cilia and the brain.
The Complexity of Cilia
Cilia are required for both simple forms of organisms, like paramecium,
and sophisticated organisms, like a human. A paramecium needs cilia for
motility, while humans need them in the lung, for instance, to sweep mucus
towards the throat to get rid of it. According to evolution, both the
paramecium and the lung would gradually and step-by-step adapt to their need
for cilia and gradually would acquire them. However, this is quite impossible.
Each cell lining the respiratory tract of humans has about 200 cilia. But
under closer examination, one can see that the cilium is too sophisticated (28)
to be gradually formed (Figure 15).
Each cilium is surrounded by a membrane. The cilium consists of a
bundle of fibres which are called an axoneme. Each axoneme contains a ring
of 9 double outer "microtubules" surrounding two central single microtubules.
28
Figure 15: The complex structure of the cilium.
Each outer doublet consists of a ring of 13 filaments (subfiber A) fused to an
assembly of 10 filaments (subfiber B). The filaments of the microtubules are
composed of two proteins called alpha and beta tubulin.
The 11 microtubules (the outer nine and the inner two) are held together
by three types of connectors: sub-fibres A are joined to the central
microtubules by radial spokes; adjacent outer doublets are joined by linkers of
a highly elastic protein called nexin, and the central microtubules are joined
by a connecting bridge. Finally, every subfiber A bears two arms; an inner
arm and an outer arm, both containing a motor protein called dynein.
Ciliary motion results from the dynein-induced sliding motion which
leads to a bending motion of the entire axoneme. This is chemically-powered
by the chemical energy contained in ATP molecules. ATP is hydrolysed by an
active ATPase which is associated with the dynein.
The lack of any building component or unit of this cilium would result in
loss of motility. In other words, the cilium is a sophisticated machinery in
which all its components must be intact and functional.
Therefore, we may conclude that the cilium is a cellular structure which
was carefully designed and tailored by God, the Supreme Creator.
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It has to exist as a complete and intact entity, right from the beginning.
Gradual or step-by-step formation over time, as proposed by the evolution
theory, could not create a functioning complex structure like this cilium.
Complexity of the Brain Structure and Function
The human brain is a complex biological and electrochemical organ which
weighs about 1.5 kg. It has ten billion nerve cells, and each sends out nerve
fibres to create about a thousand million connections. Would you believe
that this brain is a by-product of a long chain of accidental, random, nonrational
physical and chemical evolutions? (12)
5.1.3. There is No Evidence That Natural Selection
Could Form New Species
Researchers have been studying and observing bacteria for over a century
and a half. Under favourable conditions, bacterial cells can divide every 20
minutes. Therefore, over a century and a half, scientists have observed
millions of generations of bacteria. Nonetheless, after all these generations,
scientists have never observed bacterium changing into another bacterial
genus or species.
Evolutionists would say that bacteria can acquire genes of antibiotic
resistance. This is true; however, this is rather an adaptation happening in the
same species under the stress of the presence of antibiotics. This adaptation
requires a mutation(s) of an already existing gene(s) or acquiring this gene(s)
from another organism in its close environment. Therefore, it is rather
considered an adaptation or a “microevolution”, as some scientists call it.
5.1.4. Evolutionary Gaps (Transitional Fossils) (29)
Despite the accumulation of millions of fossils of different species, the
intermediate forms–or ‘evolutionary gaps’–have not been filled.
Evolutionists have tried to provide a few examples of fossils, but so far,
there is no obvious evidence for transitional species. Interestingly, Darwin
himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest
weaknesses of his theory. He wrote:
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Figure 16: A caricature of
Darwin with a monkey body.
Darwin did not propose that humans
were originally apes, like
chimpanzees. He proposed that
humans and apes, like chimpanzees,
have a common ancestor–or what is
called a “transitional stage”.
To date, no fossil has been identified
as a probable candidate for
the chimpanzee–human last common
ancestor. Why do you think?
“Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such
intermediate links? … This, perhaps, is the most obvious and gravest
objection which can be urged against my theory.”
5.1.5. Could Evolution Explain the Mysterious
Intelligence of Some Parasites?
Sometimes parasites show exceptionally clever behaviour during their
complex life cycles. Parasites are supposed to be primitive creatures, in the
sense that they do not possess brains to think, plan and design clever life
cycles. Let’s take as an example Leucochloridium paradoxum, which is a
parasitic worm found in various birds in Europe and North America. The
intermediate hosts of this worm are different types of land snails. The snail
becomes infected by the parasite after feeding on the faeces of an infected
bird.
After infection, the tentacles of the eyes of the snail change their
appearance so that they become colourful and pulsating and therefore, they
look like a certain caterpillar. With this appearance, they attract various birds
to eat them. In addition, although snails usually seek darkness for fear of
birds, an infected snail exposes itself to birds in open areas to attract them
(30).
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Figure 17: Eyestalks of a healthy snail (left) and an infected snail (right).
Now, this parasite changes the morphology of the tentacles of the snail
and controls its behaviour to make sure that its life cycle will be completed at
the expense of the life of the snail.
Who is behind this smart plan of the parasite to complete its lifecycle? Is
this cleverness a by-product of chance? Or is it God who designed the life
cycle of this parasite?
5.1.6. Evolution Doesn’t Explain Human Reactions
Darwinism cannot explain the phenomena of human consciousness,
emotion, happiness, grief, love, and the ability to think and plan. It cannot
explain how we weigh options and choose between alternatives on the basis of
our own experiences (12).
5.2. Moral Implications of Evolution
Although Darwinian Theory is a scientific work, it has been used to justify
other purposes that Darwin himself never thought of.
As humans are classified as animals, according to Darwinian evolution,
their sometimes animal-like behaviour is justified. Therefore, it has been
argued that evolution theory has degraded values, undermined morals, and
fostered atheism.
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In addition, evolution has been used to justify racism and the belief in
superior races, imperialism, communism, socialism, genocide, and war (152).
5.3. Reference to Evolution in the Qur’an
“Say, ‘Go about Earth, and observe how He originated the creation’. Then
God will bring about the next existence. God has power over all things.”
(Qur’an, 29:20)
“Praise be to God, Originator of the heavens and the Earth, Maker of the
angels (who are) messengers with wings—double, triple, and quadruple. He
adds to creation as He wills. God is Able to do all things.” (Qur’an, 35:1)
God knows that humans are curious and intelligent enough to discover, on
digging into the earth, the history of both simple and sophisticated forms of
life on Earth. God, in the above first verse, encourages us to go about the
Earth to find out how life originally started. This implies that forms of life in
the beginning of creation are different and can be differentiated from those
which were created later. Interestingly, it was Darwin who travelled around
Earth in his voyage of the Beagle for five years to conclude his theory of
evolution.
In the second verse, God draws our attention to the fact that He adds to his
creation, which implies that the creation after the additions will evolve to
something different. He also draws our attention to the most important fact
which is that He is capable, as a Creator, to do anything in His creation. In
other words, the creation gets changed or evolves by the action and Will of
God and not spontaneously, as proposed in Darwinian evolution.
5.4. Did Darwin Believe in God?
5.4.1. Darwin Never Denied God
Darwin was brought up with a Unitarian Christian background. He
attended an Anglican public school belonging to the Church of England, with
the aim to become a clergyman. He went to the University of Cambridge to
get his Bachelor’s degree, which included studies of Anglican theology (32).
At school age, he used to pray to God earnestly to clear his doubts. Darwin
wrote about his success:
“When in doubt I prayed earnestly to God to help me, and I well remember
that I attributed my success to the prayers and not to my quick running, and
marvelled how generally I was aided.”
